The GE solution has novel implications for enduring problems including our inability to identify intelligence-related genes (also known as IQ’s “missing heritability”), and the dissipation of initial benefits from early intervention programs (e.g., “Head Start”). The evidence covers IQ gains consequent to adoption/immigration, changes in heritability across lifespan and socio-economic status, gains in IQ over time consequent to societal development (the Flynn effect), the slowdown of age-related cognitive declines, and IQ gains via early education. We describe empirical evidence for GE interplay in intelligence, with malleability of intelligence existing on top of heritability. GE interplay (consisting of both interactions and correlations between genes and environment) is difficult to specify with current methods, and is underestimated in standard metrics of heritability (thus inflating estimates of “genetic” effects). Here we attempt to clarify the issue, and offer a solution to this paradox that has been frequently overlooked: Intelligence is a trait with unusual properties that create a large reservoir of hidden Gene-Environment (GE) networks, allowing for the contribution of high genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in IQ. ![]() The heritability of intelligence is extremely high, but it can also be malleable, a paradox that has been the source of continuous controversy.
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